Indicators

• Care and protection orders

• Children admitted to out-of-home care

• Children discharged from out-of-home care

Policy context

Child Protection is the prevention of, and response to, exploitation, abuse, neglect, harmful practices and violence against children. It is embedded in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Sustainable Development Goals.¹ When children cannot live safely at home, child protection systems prioritise children’s physical, mental and psychosocial needs to safeguard their lives and futures.²

In Australia, state and territory governments are responsible for statutory child protection. Relevant departments support vulnerable children:

• who have been, or are at risk of being, abused, neglected or otherwise harmed

• whose parents are unable to provide adequate care or protection.³

The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) publishes the Child Protection Australia report⁴ on an annual basis. This report compiles data from state and territory child protection agencies. Data is only available at state or territory level with no further disaggregation.

References

1. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2021, Child Protection Strategy 2021-2030, p.6 [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/media/104416/file/Child-Protection-Strategy-2021.pdf

2. Ibid.

3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2023, Child protection Australia 2021-22 [website] [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/child-protection/child-protection-australia-2021-22/contents/child-protection-system-in-australia

4. Ibid.

Indicators

• Victims of domestic violence related assault

• Victims of sexual assault

Policy context

Children can be exposed to crime as victims or witnesses within their homes or the broader community. Any type of exposure to crime at a young age can have potentially detrimental impacts on a child’s health, safety and development.

The types of crime children can be exposed to vary from non-violent crimes, such as theft or fraud, to highly violent crimes, such as aggravated sexual assault or homicide.

There can be physical and/or emotional impacts for children who are victims of, or who witness crime. In some cases, these may be short-term; however, in many cases, the consequences can involve much longer-term developmental, mental, physical and social problems.¹ For example, children exposed to crime, especially violent crime or crime involving weapons, may have:

• increased likelihood of depression

• suicidal ideation and behaviour

• psychopathology and other psychological disorders

• future victimisation and offending

• homelessness.²

References

1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2022. Australia's children. Children and crime [cited 2023 October 30]. Available at: www.aihw.gov.au/reports/children-youth/australias-children/contents/justice-safety/children-crime

2. Ibid

Indicators

• One parent families with children under 15 years old

• Same sex parent families with dependent children

Policy context

The type of family composition or structure in which children grow up matters for their development. This is because these structures influence children’s caregiving environments, including the levels of parenting and economic resources available to or invested in them and the nature of their relationships with their caregivers.¹

Changes in family structure, regardless of their nature, have the potential to adversely affect child development. They can disrupt established family roles and routines, and potentially lead to changes in residence, parental employment, and social support networks. These changes can consequently generate stress and conflict, impacting both children and their parents/carers.²

In recent decades, Australian families have undergone significant change. The diversity of families is evident in the growth of so-called non-traditional family structures. In 2022, of the families in Australia, 14 per cent were sole parent families headed up by either a female (82.8%) or male (17.2%) parent.³ Compared with other family types, one parent families are considered to be at a higher risk of disadvantage, with respect to income, housing, employment and social participation.

Same-sex attracted parents and their children are still a small minority of Australian children and parents, however, it is likely that currently available data under-represents the total number of families, particularly sole parents.⁴

References

1. Bzostek SH and Berger LM 2018, Family Structure Experiences and Child Socioemotional Development During the First Nine Years of Life: Examining Heterogeneity by Family Structure at Birth, Demography (2017) 54 (2): 513–540 [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/54/2/513/167688/Family-Structure-Experiences-and-Child

2. Ibid.

3. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2022, Labour Force Status of Families [website] [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-status-families/latest-release#one-parent-families

4. Dempsey D 2013, Same-sex parented families in Australia, Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) Research report [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/cfca/pubs/papers/a145197/cfca18_0.pdf

Indicator:

• Family fighting – Speaking Out Survey Western Australia

Policy context:

Feeling safe and being safe at home is critical for children and young people’s healthy development. A safe and supportive family provides a sense of security, fosters self-esteem and responds appropriately to children and young people’s needs.¹

Children and young people who experience family violence, abuse and neglect are more likely to have poor outcomes including poor physical health, learning and developmental difficulties, higher rates of alcohol and substance abuse, mental illness, criminality, homelessness, later parenting issues and suicide.²

The causes of family and domestic violence are complex. Violence against women is linked to gender inequality reinforced through gender-based stereotypes. It is therefore critical to collect data on children and young people’s understanding of gender equality and violence against women.³

References:

1. Mullan K and Higgins D 2014, A safe and supportive family environment for children: key components and links to child outcomes – Occasional Paper No 52, Department of Social Services, p. 2. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-home/

2. Hunter C 2014, Effects of child abuse and neglect for children and adolescents, National Child Protection Clearinghouse Resource Sheet, Australian Institute of Family Studies. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-home/

3. Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-home/

Indicators

• Young people under community-based supervision

• Young people in detention

Policy context

Young people who commit or allegedly commit a crime when aged 10 to 17 may be dealt with under the youth justice system. Each state and territory in Australia has its own youth justice legislation, policies and practices but the general processes by which young people are charged, and the types of legal orders available to the courts, are similar.¹

The personal, economic and social costs of not addressing the underlying causes of youth offending for both the affected young people and the wider community, are significant.²ʼ³ It is essential that coordinated early intervention and the delivery of therapeutic programs and supports to address the underlying causes of offending are implemented to divert children and young people away from the justice system.⁴

References

1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2023, Youth justice [website] [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/youth-justice

2. CoLab – Collaborate for Kids et al 2019, How Australia can invest in children and return more, A new look at the $15b cost of late action, CoLab – Collaborate for Kids, p. 5 [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://cdn.minderoo.org/content/uploads/2019/10/15174253/20191016-COLI-Report.pdf

3. Fox S et al 2015, Better Systems, Better Chances: A Review of Research and Practice for Prevention and Early Intervention, Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth (ARACY), p. 35 [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.aracy.org.au/publications-resources/command/download_file/id/274/filename/Better-systems-better-chances.pdf

4. Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-home/

Indicators

• Friends – Wellbeing Engagement Collection South Australia

Policy context

Friendships play a crucial role in the lives of all children and young people, aiding in their development of communication, cooperation, social skills and independence. These bonds are particularly important during adolescence, where they can act as a protective shield against bullying and mental health issues, and contribute to the cultivation of persistence and motivation in school.¹ʼ² At the same time, the attitudes of friends can also have negative influences on a range of behavioural, social-emotional and school outcomes.³

WA research with both primary and secondary school children has demonstrated that good friendships are one of the key indicators of children’s happiness and one of the most important things for young people in their lives.⁴

References

1. Bayer J et al 2018, Bullying, mental health and friendship in Australian primary school children, Child and Adolescent Mental Health, Vol 23, No 4. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/supportive-relationships/

2. Healy KL and Sanders MR 2018, Mechanisms Through Which Supportive Relationships with Parents and Peers Mitigate Victimization, Depression and Internalizing Problems in Children Bullied by Peers, Child Psychiatry and Human Development, Vol 49, No 5. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the home [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/supportive-relationships/

3. Martin A and Dowson M 2009, Interpersonal Relationships, Motivation, Engagement, and Achievement: Yields for Theory, Current Issues, and Educational Practice, Review of Educational Research, Vol 79 No 1, pp. 327-365. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0034654308325583?journalCode=rera

4. Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Supportive relationships with friends [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-6-to-11-years/supportive-relationships/

Indicators

• Experiences of violence – Speaking Out Survey WA

• Feeling safe in the community – Speaking Out Survey WA

• Safe community environments – Growing Up in Queensland

Policy context

Experiencing a sense of safety and security is a critical foundation for children and young people’s healthy development. Feeling safe in their neighbourhood and other communities or groups is essential for young people to develop their independence, engage in physical activity outside their home and build positive relationships with other adults and peers.¹

Children and young people who are exposed to violence in their community are at higher risk of negative long-term outcomes including anxiety-related disorders, substance abuse and exhibiting future violent behaviour.²ʼ³

Exposure to violence in the community can also contribute to problems forming positive and trusting relationships and is strongly associated with young people exhibiting conduct problems.⁴

Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive national data collection to inform the indicators within this theme. Instead, some states and territories conduct their own surveys among school students, addressing aspects such as feeling safe in their community and experiences of physical bullying or violence. However, these survey findings are typically only made available in the form of a summarised report specific to each state or territory. In some states, no public reporting takes place.

References

1. Tucci J et al 2008, Children’s sense of safety: Children’s experiences of childhood in contemporary Australia, Australian Childhood Foundation, p. 11. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the community [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-community/

2. Luthar S and Goldstein A 2015, Children’s Exposure to Community Violence: Implications for Understanding Risk and Resilience, Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent Psychology, Vol 33, No 3. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the community [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-community/

3. Guerra NG and Dierkhising MA 2011, The Effects of Community Violence on Child Development, Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. Available at: https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/social-violence/according-experts/effects-community-violence-child-development

4. Kersten L et al 2017, Community Violence Exposure and Conduct Problems in Children and Adolescents with Conduct Disorder and Healthy Controls, Frontiers in Behavioural Neuroscience, Vol 11. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Safe in the community [cited 2023 September 19]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/safe-in-the-community/

Indicators

• Turning to others for support – Speaking Out Survey WA

• Turning to others for support – Growing Up in Queensland

Policy context

All children and young persons are entitled to be loved and to feel secure and nurtured within positive and wholesome relationships. When young individuals receive support from such safe and positive relationships, they are more likely to maintain good mental health, exhibit resilience, be able to learn and sustain healthy relationships throughout their lives.

Between the ages of 12 and 17, young people undergo a multitude of physical, cognitive, and emotional transformations inherent to adolescence. Establishing positive relationships with family, friends, and other adults becomes vital during this phase to offer the necessary support.

Research suggests that positive relationships with non-parental adults support young people’s wellbeing by providing them with a sense of value, purpose, identity and attachment to their community.¹ Conversely, negative relationships or experiences (such as discrimination, being treated unfairly or badly) with other adults can foster a sense of worthlessness, powerlessness and negative self-concept.²

References

1. Goswami H 2012, Social Relationships and Children’s Subjective Well-Being, Social Indicators Research, Vol 107, No 3. Cited in: Commissioner for Children and Young People WA, Indicators of Wellbeing, Supportive relationships [cited 2023 September 21]. Available at: https://www.ccyp.wa.gov.au/our-work/indicators-of-wellbeing/age-group-12-to-17-years/supportive-relationships/

2. Ibid.