Environment

  • Indicators

    • Extreme Heat

    • Extreme Cold

    Policy context
    Extreme heat poses significant risks to the health of children and young people. Young children are especially vulnerable due to their smaller body size, higher metabolic rate, and reliance on adults for hydration and cooling.¹ ² Prolonged exposure to hot conditions increases the risk of dehydration, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke, while also exacerbating chronic conditions such as asthma. Research shows that heatwaves associate to higher rates of hospital admissions and emergency department visits for children and young people,³ particularly for respiratory and circulatory conditions. Monitoring local temperature extremes is therefore essential to guide health services, schools, and communities in developing adaptation and protection strategies.


    Conversely, Australia may evoke images of sunny summers, but cold extremes, particularly in southern states and inland regions, pose real health risks for children. Frigid indoor environments are linked to wintertime illness and increased mortality even in temperate climates like Australia.⁴ In fact, extreme cold is the second most common weather-related cause of death in Australia, after heat; hypothermia can occur at surprisingly mild exposures (air temperature below 10 °C) and children are especially vulnerable.⁵ Cold snaps also exacerbate respiratory conditions—coughs, asthma flares, and even heart and lung issues spike during winter, and asthma hospitalisations for children regularly peak in late autumn and early winter.⁶

    References

    1. UNICEF, “Heat waves and how they impact children,” n.d. [Online]. Available: https://www.unicef.org/stories/heat-waves-impact-children.

    2. D. Uibel, R. Sharma, D. Piontkowski, P. E. Sheffield and J. E. Clougherty, “Association of ambient extreme heat with pediatric morbidity: a scoping review,” International Journal of Biometeorology, 2022.

    3. L. H. Schapiro, M. A. McShane, H. K. Marwah, M. E. Callaghan and M. L. Neudecker, “Impact of extreme heat and heatwaves on children's health: A scoping review,” The Journal of Climate Change and Health, vol. 19, 2024.

    4. C. F. Barlow, L. Daniel and E. Baker, “Cold homes in Australia: Questioning our assumptions about prevalence,” Energy Research & Social Science, vol. 100, 2023.

    5. AIHW, “Let’s talk about the weather: injuries related to extreme weather,” [Online]. Available: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/injury/extreme-weather-injuries/contents/extreme-cold.

    6. “Cold weather brings higher risks for kids with asthma,” [Online]. Available: https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/news/2016/cold-weather-brings-higher-risks-for-kids-with-asthma.

  • Indicators

    • Average Pollutant Concentrations

    • Exceedance Days

    Policy context
    Air pollution remains a leading environmental health risk for children. Fine particulate matter—specifically PM2.5 and PM10—can penetrate deep into the lungs, impairing respiratory development and heightening the risk of asthma and other chronic respiratory conditions¹. Gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and ozone are also linked to increased asthma attacks and acute respiratory illness in children.²

    Beyond immediate health effects, there is growing evidence that long‑term exposure to elevated pollution levels adversely impacts cognitive development and academic performance. Evidence shows that air pollution not only harms respiratory health but also affects learning outcomes, with studies finding that higher PM2.5 exposure is linked to reduced test scores among school-aged children .³ ⁴

     Monitoring average pollutant levels provides an essential early warning signal. It enables policymakers and communities to identify high-risk areas, guide public health interventions, and ultimately protect children’s respiratory health and learning potential.

    Tracking the number of days when fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations exceed typical thresholds is important for understanding acute exposure risks. High-pollution days in Australia often coincide with bushfires, dust storms, or traffic-related emissions, and these events are strongly associated with increased asthma attacks and respiratory difficulties in children.⁵ ⁶ ⁷ Research shows that exposure to repeated episodes of poor air quality, such as during the 2019–2020 Black Summer bushfires, contributed to increased hospitalisations and measurable declines in lung function among children.⁸ Monitoring PM2.5 exceedance days therefore provides an important tool for identifying when children are most at risk and for supporting early warning systems and public health responses.

    References

    1. K. Liu, H. Zhang, Y. Bo, Y. Chen, P. Zhang, C. Huang, Z. Yu and Z. Gao, “Ambient air pollution and Children's health: An umbrella review,” Atmospheric Pollution Research, vol. 15, no. 6, 2024.

    2. M. Lin, Y. Chen, R. T. Burnett, P. J. Villeneuve and D. Krewski, “Effect of short-term exposure to gaseous pollution on asthma hospitalisation in children: a bi-directional case-crossover analysis,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 57, 2003.

    3. P. H. Lam, E. Zang, D. Chen, R. Liu and K. Chen, “Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Academic Performance Among Children in North Carolina,” JAMA Network Open, vol. 6, pp. e2340928-e2340928, 2023.

    4. H. J. C.-N. N. A. R. Filho, “How does air quality affect the health of children and adolescents?,” Jornal de Pediatria, vol. 101, pp. S77 - S83, 2025.

    5. National Asthma Council Australia, “Dust storms and asthma,” [Online]. Available: https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/living-with-asthma/resources/patients-carers/factsheets/dust-storms-and-asthma.

    6. National Asthma Council Australia, “Bushfires and asthma,” [Online]. Available: https://www.nationalasthma.org.au/living-with-asthma/resources/patients-carers/factsheets/bushfires-and-asthma.

    7. R. B. Christopher, C. G. J. Kay, D. K. Martyn and G. S. Sheena, “Effect of ambient PM2.5 on healthcare utilisation,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, pp. 120-132, 2023.

    8. C. R. D. S. Sena, O. Lines, M. S. Latheef, G. G. Amarasinghe, W. H. Quah, T. Beyene, J. V. Buskirk, I. Hanigan, G. Morgan, C. Oldmeadow, P. G. Gibson and V. E. Mur, “Reduction in forced vital capacity in asthmatic children on days with bushfire smoke exposure in the Australian 2019/2020 bushfire,” Pediatr Allergy Immunol, 2022.

  • Indicators

    • Health & Services

    • Natural Environment

    Policy context

    Access to healthcare services is a fundamental protective factor for children and young people.¹ Ready access to hospitals and health services supports timely treatment of acute illness and injury, improves management of chronic conditions, and enables preventive care that reduces long-term health risks.² ³ For children, this means better opportunities for early intervention, vaccination, and ongoing monitoring of developmental and health needs.

    Access to green space and natural environments has significant benefits for children’s physical and mental health. Green areas encourage outdoor activity, reduce obesity risk, and support emotional wellbeing by lowering stress and improving mood.⁴ ⁵ ⁶ Vegetation also improves air quality and helps moderate urban temperatures,⁷ reducing the effects of heatwaves on vulnerable children. Research shows that children living in greener neighbourhood's experience better developmental and health outcomes, making these indicators essential for understanding environmental determinants of child wellbeing.⁴

    References

    1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, “Health system overview,” 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/health-system-overview.

    2. S. Teutsch, Y. Zurynski, G. D. Eslick, M. Deverell, J. Christodoulou, H. Leonard, T. Dalkeith, S. L. J. Johnson and E. J. Elliott, “Australian children living with rare diseases: health service use and barriers to accessing care,” World Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 19, pp. 701-709, 2023.

    3. C. Bull, P. Howie and E. J. Callander, “Inequities in vulnerable children’s access to health services in Australia,” BMJ Global Health, 2022.

    4. M. J. Z. Sakhvidi, A. H. Mehrparvar, F. Z. Sakhvidi and P. Dadvand, “Greenspace and health, wellbeing, physical activity, and development in children and adolescents: An overview of the systematic reviews,” Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2023.

    5. W. Nicole, “Nature and Neurodevelopment: Differences in Brain Volume by Residential Exposure to Greenness,” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 126, no. 6, 2018.

    6. “Does Access to Green Space Impact the Mental Well-being of Children: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Pediatric Nursing, vol. 37, pp. 3-7, 2017.

    7. World Health Organization (WHO), “Urban green spaces and health,” 2016